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Notes on Book 13.
Now Odysseus has finished his tales, and thus
rehearsed all the steps that have gone into establishing his identity --
that of the man of many ways, of tricks and mind as well as might. And
this identity is given honor by the Phaiakians by the extra load of gifts
they give him. Remember, gifts are the necessary, visible sign of the honor
paid him. As Odysseus is about to depart, notice how Odysseus gives a winecup
to Queen Arete; this is another example of how powerful females seem to
constantly send men on these important voyages in the Odyssey (as Kirke
and Calypso also sent Odysseus before, as Athene sent Telemachus.) As he
journeys out of the realm of fairyland, a place between life and death,
notice how Odysseus sleeps. There is some scholarship that suggests that
in some legends people like the Phaiakians, like Utnapistim's boatman,
were people who conducted humans between our world and the land of the
dead or the divine realm. Naturally, then, Odysseus sleeps. Notice too,
as Poseidon comments, that Odysseus comes back with more material possessions
(and thus honor) than he would have had if he had not suffered these terrible
trials (rather like Job in the Bible gets more than he lost though his
brave suffering.) This is symbolic of the great rewards of struggle. Poseidon's
turning to stone of the ship is perhaps a type of explanation of why nobody
in Homer's day had ever seen a Phaikian. After Poseidon's rebuke, they
never come here anymore.
Now Odysseus is ready to return. As
we will see, Odysseus' return to his home and palace is going to
happen though a series of stages, each bringing stage him closer to his
ultimate repossession of his identity. First he will land on Ithaka and
not even know where he is. Then Odysseus will be reunited with Athene,
his old patron, who will send him to Eumaios the swine herd, his old and
trusty slave, who lives a distance from the palace. Then he will be reunited
with Telemachus, and then he return to his own palace, and be reunited
with Argos the dog, Eurykleia his old nurse, and finally Penelope. In the
process he will be revealed as King of Ithaka and demonstrate his
power. Then finally, only after the battle with the suitors and the reunion
with Penelope will be meet his Father Laertes.
When Odysseus is returned, Ithaka is wrapped
in a mist, perhaps symbolic of the confusion Odysseus feels. He meets
his magic helper Athene, who tempts him, testing him to see if he is prepared
to use the cunning he will need in dealing with the suitors. Her very proud
description of Ithaka tempts Odysseus to at once announce his identity,
but he is too shrewd for that. Remember the lesson that Agamemnon taught
him, who was slaughtered at his homecoming. Odysseus will try and test
all his people, to see who is truly loyal, and then hand out fitting punishment.
Instead of confessing who he is, Odysseus
spins this yarn about being some Cretan exile. Odysseus will spin out three
such different tales about being a Cretan. Although the details are obscure
to us, there appears to be a connection between Odysseus and Crete. In
Book 10 of the Iliad Merones gives to Odysseus the boars-tusk helmet that
had once been stolen by Autolycus, Odysseus' grandfather. Cretans are known
as good archers (In fact, Merones wins the archery contest at Patroclus'
funeral games) and it is only during the Night Expedition against Dolon
that Odysseus is seen with a bow. And notice, in response to Odysseus'
lies, how Athene responds, congratulating him and comparing him to herself!
A very different attitude than in the Iliad toward such cunning. Again,
the trickster side of Odysseus is celebrated. Here too Odysseus has to
ask (as the reader might wonder) why Athena was absent during most of Odysseus
ordeals, and she explains how she could not interfere with the operations
of her uncle Poseidon.
Then finally they put their heads together
and plan the destruction of the suitors. Odysseus will first make allies
of Eumaios and his son and a few others, then infiltrate his palace in
disguise. And thus Athena turns him into a disgusting beggar. This is interesting
too, for, unlike the uniformly aristocratic Iliad, Odysseus the hero not
only explores life as a warrior and hero but also that of a fugitive and
beggar, which, in some ways, is even lower than a slave, who at least is
attached to some household.
Notes on Book 14.
Many critics do not like this book, because it is
too long and shows Odysseus acting like a greedy beggar. But that is part
of the point -- Athene has given him a disguise, which he plays to the
full. Nevertheless, Odysseus' qualities show through even here, as he slowly
gains mastery of the situation. Also, this scene with Eumaios, who shows
such excellent hospitality although a slave, contrasts with the harshness
of the suitors - - another proof of the fact that they must die. Also Eumaios,
with his extremely well organized pig-farm, is a symbol of the kind of
order that the suitors are trying to destroy. And, perhaps in the spirit
of Hesiod, there is a note that human wealth and property can be increased
by organized hard work -- again so different an attitude than that seen
in the Iliad, where wealth is either inherited or gained by plunder and
conquest, not -- the gods forbid! -- by hard, unheroic work and economic
management. Also, we have what we might call a bit of pastoral here
-- a semi-idyllic portrayal of farm life. Also we see more of what Odysseus
meant to his family and dependents, which shows how excellent a person
Odysseus is. There is much ironic comedy in Odysseus' references to himself
and the pleasure he gets in listening himself being praised by Eumaios.
But this is also important, for such praise lets Odysseus know who he can
count on in his coming plot against the suitors.
Notice in lines 40 ff. how the slave Eumaios
shows Odysseus the rustic variation of the hospitable treatment of guest
that nobles give -- does this imply a humanistic notion that true nobility
is not the possession of nobles alone? And notice how Eumaios too is properly
respectful of the gods. Notice how Eumaios is skeptical of any possible
report of Odysseus being still alive, especially from beggar, who would
be expected to say anything to get a meal. Yet Odysseus (in disguise) does
swear that Odysseus is to come. It is part of his strategy of encouraging
his dispirited people. In his disbelieving reply Eumaios tells Odysseus
about Telemachus. Then, kindly, he asks Odysseus about his own woes. And
Odysseus, wily Odysseus, tells Eumaios a lying story that is very much
like Eumaios' own - (they both were kidnapped) - which of course
Odysseus knows, and he tells this story in such a way so that Eumaios will
be more sympathetic, feel this beggar is a kindred spirit. This lying story
is another Cretan tale (see discussion on Cretan tales in my account of
Chapter 13) . Notice the next feast on page 261 is much like the feasts
of Homeric nobles, and is comic, for here it takes place in a very non-heroic
setting.
The story that Odysseus tells to get the cloak
is not just another tale to get a gift. It also is part of his strategy
to prove to Eumaios that he really knows Odysseus. At this point you might
wonder what is going on -- by now surely Odysseus knows he can trust Eumaios.
So why doesn't he just reveal himself? For a number of reasons -- first,
Odysseus cannot turn back into his former shape until Athene wills it.
Also, this is part of his regaining his identity by rehearsing his relationships
with his family. And at the same time, he is preparing them for the moment
he reveals himself, by reminding them of Odysseus' nature.
Notes on Book 15
In book 15 we turn back to
Telemachos, who shows that he has been changed by his education and also
shows new status in the incredible gifts given to him by Menelaus. Telemachus
is now becoming experienced in acting the part of a Homeric hero. His new
status is vividly shown by the way Athene, Odysseus' old protector, now
appears to him directly, not in disguise at all. Athene wants him to hurry
back to Ithaka, and so she gives him a paranoid warning about how Penelope
may be getting married -- which, of course, can be explained as a manifestation
of Telemachus' own worries. Note the new authority of Telemachus as he
kicks Peisistratus awake and commands that they go back now. He is no longer
afraid to talk to Menelaus, who will send him home with all sorts of fabulous
gifts, the physical symbol of his new heroic status. As he bids Menelaus
farewell, and mentions the return of Odysseus, Telemachus gets an omen,
the eagle with the goose in its talons, which is immediately interpreted
as a sign of Odysseus. Notice in book 19 Penelope will recount a dream
in which she had a number of geese (= the suitors) who are killed by a
eagle. Helen, the daughter of Zeus, interprets the omen correctly. As they
leave, Telemachus again asserts his independence by refusing to stop at
Nestor's palace, knowing that Nestor will seriously delay him. More importantly,
as he and crew are getting ready to leave, Theoclymenos, a prophet of Apollo,
and a fugitive on the run from the relatives of a man he has murdered,
comes up to Telemachus begging protection. Here is a chance for Telemachus
to act the master of the household and to form his own important guest
friendships, and thus he gives asylum to Theoclymenus and takes on ship.
The importance of this event is shown by the long description of Theoclymenos'
history that he is given. Also later Theoclymenos will be on hand to interpret
important omens.
Now the scene shifts
back to the swineherd's hut, where Odysseus is further testing him, and
we get to learn more about Eumaios. The story of Eumaios is told in part
to repeat further themes, how slave women cannot be trusted, and thus Odysseus
must beware. But it seems to me that this section shows an interest in
matters non-heroic, in the little people, so to speak. This goes along
with the theme of Odysseus as the great explorer, one who not only explores
strange lands and peoples and learns the secrets of the Land of the Dead,
but as one who has explored all the levels of human life. He has been a
great king, a ship wrecked sailor, the love-slave of a goddess, and now
is a homeless beggar sharing a hut with a pig farming slave. Again, the
Odyssey is a poem that concerns itself with so much more of the human community.
Telemachus comes quickly
home, protected by Athene from the suitors' plot.; we remember the suitors
sent out a ship to try to ambush the returning Telemachus. The great question
now will be -- can Telemachus maintain his heroic status now in his homeland,
where he must play for keeps? At first he seems a bit at a loss, ironically
advising the man he is protecting to go and visit the head suitor, Eurymakhos,
because he is the only one who can protect him. Telemachus is not serious
about this, but only mediating on his own helplessness. But, to give him
confidence, the gods send another bird omen, which Theoclymenos interprets
favorably. Telemachus then gets serious, and sends Theoclymenos off to
one of his friends for safety, along with the gifts. Then Telemachus heads
off by sea to Eumaios' place, and the confrontation with his father.
Notes on Book 16
The main event of Book 16,
of course, is the recognition between Telemachus and Odysseus. Telemachus
appears in the doorway, and we have a type of reunion scene between Telemachus
and his foster-father (so to speak) Eumaios. This shows how much Telemachus
needs a father. Now this is also a tense time for Odysseus. He wonders
what sort of man Telemachus as grown up to be, whether he will be up to
the terrible job ahead. The first results are none too promising. When
Eumaios suggests that Telemachus offer protection to the beggar, Telemachus
claims he can do nothing. Remember, one of the problems that Telemachus
faces is whether he can maintain the heroic posture he has gained at Sparta
and Pylos in the face of the very real threats present in his homeland.
Odysseus tests him further, probing to see his true nature. As Telemachus
gives Eumaios instructions about informing his mother about his return,
Athena gives a signal seen by Odysseus alone for him to come outside, where
she transforms him back into his old self. Meanwhile, Eumaios has left,
and now Odysseus can come back in as himself. Of course, Odysseus wants
the kind of joyful reception Eumaios got, but things are more complicated.
Telemachus has gotten used to the idea of the absent Odysseus. The real
one will be something of a shock. And, to be the true son of Odysseus,
he must be cautious. Telemachus, understandably, cannot figure out how
the man could be so suddenly changed from a beggar to a hero, and thus
thinks it is some god. We know enough about the gods to see how one cannot
quite trust them. Yet at the same time Telemachus has got to shift though
some fears before he can greet Odysseus. It takes time for the reality
of the situation to sink in, and this scares Odysseus a bit and angers
him. But as Odysseus gives explanations Telemachus softens a bit. It will
later be a lot harder to convince Penelope. Still, Telemachos has questions
to ask about what Odysseus is up to. Even though he is brave, Telemachus
is still daunted by the prospect of destroying the suitors. But Odysseus
comforts him with the promise of the aid of Zeus and Athene. This settles
the question for him. Odysseus explains one part of the plot, how Telemachus
is to move the weapons from the hall of the palace, as he will do later.
Then Odysseus gives Telemachus a challenge (299) to keep quiet, like Odysseus,
and endure keeping up the plot without telling anybody else of Odysseus'
return. Remember, the skill of Odysseus is craft, the ability to keep secret,
endure pain, and strike when the time is right. Telemachus must learn this
skill.
As they plot the scene
shifts to the suitors who have learned how Telemachus has escaped their
ambush. They suspect that some god has helped him, but will not take the
hint. They realize that their position is weakened, that news of their
attempted assassination of Telemachus is turning the people of Ithaka against
them. They must act soon. Again, matters are coming to a crisis point.
Antinoos asserts they must kill Telemachus soon. Amphinomos, who is the
closest thing to a good suitor (a basically good person that is corrupted
by bad company) speaks out against the plot, and mentions the need to consult
Zeus. They agree to this (but they will never act upon it) and the meeting
breaks up. They know what they should do, but are too weak and immoral
to act correctly. And soon afterward Eurymakhos speaks soothing words about
protecting Telemachus to Penelope, just after he had been plotting the
death of her son!
Eumaios comes back
to the pig farm and gives Telemachus and Odysseus the latest news. Now
all is ready for the move back to the palace by Odysseus, the next stage
of the restoration of Odysseus' identity.
Notes on Book 17
Now that Odysseus has been reunited with Telemachus,
the action can move down toward the palace. Again, notice the gradual re-entry
of Odysseus into his own domain. Now Telemachus must show his own strength
and craftiness by concealing the fact that he knows who the beggar really
is. Telemachus arrives first, and immediately begins to act in a
more subtle way. He does not allow his Mother an immediate interview, for
he realizes the suitors might overhear. He refuses to take his customary
place with the suitors. When his friend wants to give to him the gifts
he has been storing, Telemachus wisely refuses, so that there will be no
chance of the wealth falling into the suitors' hands. Notice too he begins
to more seriously consider the deaths of the suitors. Apparently after
the suitors have eaten and gone outside to play games, Telemachus feels
it is safe to talk to Penelope. Again, this is a time when Telemachus
is sorely tempted to tell the full truth to his mother, but, like Odysseus,
he can restrain himself and tell only what he learned from Menelaus, including
the fact the Odysseus is still alive.
Meanwhile Odysseus
has been making his way to the palace along with Eumaios, who does not
think it is a good idea. There is an ironic portrait of the master being
led by his slave. The goodness of Eumaios is contrasted with the evil slave
Melanthios, who insults Odysseus, which he must patently endure. He even
prays for Odysseus to be destroyed. Then he kicks Odysseus, another unspeakable
outrage, but Odysseus keeps his disguise and endures. Notice that Odysseus
will be assaulted three other times, and each time will be less effective
than the last, showing Odysseus' increasing dominance of the situation.
Notice too Melanthios goes immediately upon arrival at the palace to sit
next to his master Eurymakhos. This shows the basic similarity in natures
between suitor and slave.
Now Odysseus has finally
arrived at this own palace. He plays the role of the belly-obsessed beggar
to the full. Then we get one of the more tender recognition scenes, as
old Argus, Odysseus' faithful dog, who was once strong, but now is alone
and discarded, recognizes Odysseus. He weakly lifts his head, wags his
tail, then drops dead. Odysseus again must fight to preserve his disguise.
The welcome response of the dog will be a strong contrast to the reception
he will get in his own house. Notice too this brings out in Eumaios another
prayer for Odysseus' return, and an interesting comment -- both how, with
the master absent, the household is fallen into disorder, and, more interestingly,
a comment about the demoralizing effects of slavery.
Finally Odysseus gets
inside his own house. The solidity of the house is symbolized by the straightness
of the doorway. There is irony and pathos as Odysseus stands in his own
house, a disguised beggar, symbolic of the great work he must still do
to fully regain his identity and status. As Odysseus enters, be begins
to test the suitors, going begging from one suitor to another, feeling
them out, seeing who is here and what kind of men they are. All are at
first barely decent, except the violent Antinoos, (who will be the first
one Odysseus will kill) who tosses a stool at him, which strikes a blow
probably less effective than the kick of Melanthios. This is outrageous
behavior (since it is not their house) and even the other suitors protest.
As the days wear on, the suitors will becomes even less self-restrained,
but Odysseus in turn will exert great power over them, even as a beggar.
Penelope response is a type of omen as she prays -- would that Antinoos
be hit in this way by Apollo's bowshot -- which he will, during Apollo's
feast on the next day.
Penelope inquires about the new beggar, and Eumaios tells her
what he knows. Notice how he says that the beggar is the ultimate story
teller, and has news of Odysseus. This prompts Penelope to pray that Odysseus
and her son will take vengeance on the suitors, which is answered by the
sudden omen of the unexpected loud sneeze of Telemachus. Penelope requests
an interview with the beggar, but Odysseus wisely defers until the suitors
are gone, and he can gather further information which will prepare him.
This show of prudence will, of course, impress Penelope. And this delaying
tactic will keep us in interested suspense.
In the books ahead
we should note how Odysseus, the beggar, takes a more and more important
role and defies the suitors more and more. Because they have destroyed
order in the house, it is natural that they cannot even cope with one wretched
beggar. We will see Odysseus more and more becomes master of the situation,
and the actions of the suitors being more pointless and confused. Thus,
even in disguise, such is the power of Odysseus' personality that he gains
power over these evil men.
Notes on Book 18
Book 18 is in some sense a bit of delaying comic relief. The battle with the beggar Iros (the beggar of the suitors) is symbolic of the battle Odysseus will have with the suitors themselves later. The beggar Iros is like the suitors themselves, all talk and belly. He insults Odysseus, and here we have another temptation of Odysseus, to have to endure being insulted by a vile beggar in his own house, but he endures. He accepts the challenge and then strips for boxing. He is obviously no weakling, and the coward Iros tries to back out, but is forced to fight by the suitors who threaten him. Odysseus beats him easily, just as he will destroy the suitors. After the fight, Odysseus is honored by Amphinomos, one of the basically decent suitors who is being corrupted by bad company. Odysseus addresses him, tries to warn him away by a moral lesson, of how fate is changeable, hinting that the present domination of the suitors can (and will) be soon violently upset. But Amphinomos cannot accept this, and sits back down among the suitors, soon to die. The moral of this story is that young men should watch the company they keep, for they may be destroyed along with the evil men. Notice this moral lesson is underscored by Penelope, who wants suddenly to talk to Telemachus, to tell him to shun the evil crowd. Athene, although Penelope does not want it, beautifies her in preparation for her appearance among the suitors, where she will demand gifts. Then she makes her appearance, and warns Telemachus, asking him how he can tolerate such unruly behavior. Here Telemachus, in his feeble response, is probably trying to make the suitors feel he is still impotent, so they will not get suspicious. Then the deceitful Eurymakos speaks, telling Penelope how beautiful she is and desirable -- this is part of Penelope's temptation, to become like a Helen, the contested object of vile men. But Penelope shows her true values. What is really important too is seen on page 344, as Penelope relates the promise she made to Odysseus to marry when Telemachus grew up. He is now grown up, as shown by his heroic deeds. Thus matters are coming to a head. Now Penelope seems to hint that, if she is properly to be wooed, she must get gifts. But why does Penelope do this now? Is she flirting with the suitors? No. Remember, that to get gifts was a symbol of honor, and this is a way of showing Penelope's glory. Since too now she must seriously consider marriage, she must do it in the proper way. Notice how Odysseus sees all this, and, instead of becoming angry, he smiles to himself, seeing how she is enriching his own household. Also, she has shown that she is being obedient to the oath she swore to Odysseus, and that too must comfort him. And she gets great gifts. But the vileness of the suitors and their corrupting influence must be underlined again, We see how they have corrupted the maid servants, and then we see the jokes Eurymakhos makes about Odysseus' baldness. Again, when they are wooing Penelope, when they should be on their best behavior, they are insolent and crass. Notice how their impotence is shown by the way Odysseus firmly answers Eurymakhos, who tosses a stool, which this time misses (sign of their powerlessness and Odysseus' mastery of the situation) and hits one of the serving men. The insolence is underscored by the protest of one of the suitors. Then the suitors leave, and we are ready for the first interview between Odysseus and Penelope.