The play's opening scene is set in Delphi (pg 147), as the old Priestess of Apollo goes in to consult the oracle. Her prayer gives a preview of themes to come. As I noted, at the end of this play there will be a peaceful reconciliation between the old, earthborn powers (the Furies) and the Olympians. Here there is a model for this peaceful succession, as the Priestess describes how this oracles at Delphi used to belong to the eldest of the mother goddesses, Earth herself, but became the property of Apollo. Apollo, of course, will figure prominently, as will Athena, who is next mentioned (pg 148, top 1/3). The rest of the gods are also mentioned, stressing the fact that the actions of this play will have an impact on the whole divine cosmos.
             This radiant invocation of the Olympian gods is quickly answered as the Priestess goes in and quickly comes out of Apollo's temple. No Olympians there, but the horrid Furies with Orestes. Orestes here is still polluted - the Priestess imagines that his hands are still dripping with the blood of Clytemnestra. This is a low point for the play, for it seems that Apollo has done no good, if the Furies can even pursue Orestes' into Apollo's shrine. Thus the Priestess calls upon Apollo the healer. But the question is -- can Apollo really heal?
            Orestes calls upon Apollo, who in turn replies that he will stand by Orestes (pg 149). At this point we suspect that Apollo has made the Furies fall asleep, so that Orestes can get away. Notice that Apollo has absolutely no respect for these Furies as later he tells them to get out of his temple, and instead to go to places of horror (bottom 1/2 of 153. His attitude is in fact unreasonable, for he cannot see that they can have a function in the Olympian universe. He sends (probably at Zeus' command) Orestes on to Athens and Athena, and reminds Orestes that he did obey his command. Hermes may here be a character who helps Orestes go away.
            Orestes leaves, and Clytemnestra's dream-ghost comes on (pg 150), who represents what is in the mind of the Furies. She still concerned with nets and hunting, but this time it is her own son that is the intended victim. You should probably think of her as her personified curse, the curse of the dying mother upon her son. Indeed, one of the things that the Furies call themselves are the "curses".
            As the Chorus awake they curse the new gods (bottom of 151 ff.). "Phoebus, son of Zeus, are you a god? You set honesty aside; You, the younger  ride roughshod over Elder Powers." (top page 152) Aeschylus here introduces explicitly the theme of the division of the cosmos, the rupture between the new Olympian gods and the older female earth divinities which was seen  vividly in the Prometheus Bound. The Furies are determined to preserve their ancient law, their ancient concept of justice....
.    ..And Apollo is just as determined that they have no place in the universe. He sees them as horrid monsters whose activity is based on crude ancient conceptions of blood kinship, not on advanced notions of society. He sees them as outmoded, like certain old cruel penalties. Notice how savagely he addresses the Furies on page 153. This will be in great contrast to the respect that Athena shows them.
            In the short debate between the Furies and Apollo we have a preview of the arguments that are going to be used in the later trial. Apollo, as I said, does not even acknowledge the Furies ancient function. Apollo asks the telling question of why the Furies did not pursue Clytemnestra, who killed her husband. They reply that she did not shed kindred blood. Apollo rejects this, for he sees society as not based on blood relationships, but as governed by social laws, which, of course, honor human-made institutions like marriage and government. Apollo points out that such unions are sanctified by Zeus and Hera and Aphrodite. In other words, the Fury simply support the ties between people of blood, the ancient biological tie. But Apollo says that advanced human institutions create different bonds - that between husband and wife, between ruler and subject. Both these more advanced bonds were betrayed by Clytemnestra. Remember, animals cannot have marriages or governments.
            The debate ends on a note of rancor. We wonder how in the world there can be any accommodation between Apollo and the Furies, between the Olympians and the daughters of Night. But Apollo, although he thinks so, does not know the full purpose of Zeus.
           The scene shifts to Athens (bottom 1/2 of 155), where Orestes comes to hug Athena's statue in supplication. This probably happens some days, weeks or months after the last scene, for Orestes has been ritually purified in various ways. Indeed, Orestes now insists he is purified. Note how this contrasts with his earlier knowledge that he was polluted. But now he knows he has made atonement, has acknowledged, like Clytemnestra or Agamemnon never did or could have,  that in any act of violence, however justified, there is always a stain, always some pollution. We need such a fear, to stop us from killing too easily.
            Like dogs on the trail (and remember how Cassandra in the Agamemnon was also described as a hound, hunting the blood scent of ancient crime) , the Chorus comes in. They picture themselves almost as vampires who will suck the lifeblood out of Orestes to pay for his blood guilt. But again Orestes declared he has been purified by any number of ways, and that he is clean,and thus is fit to call upon Athena to deliver him. Note that Orestes says that he is "Long taught by pain" (about 2/5 down on page 157.) Remember how in the Agamemnon one of the chief themes was that Zeus makes us learn through sufferings (Man must suffer to be wise, page 48, 2/3 down).
        The Chorus of Furies at this point begin the Binding Song (Hear this song that binds you to our will.." top page 158), to destroy Orestes wits and life. In this song we should note the hunting imagery. the summons to their mother, Night, and how the Furies too see that they have no part of the Olympian world. They accept the Olympians hatred of themselves and reject Olympian law and concepts of justice. And while accepting themselves as despised creatures, they nevertheless are steadfast in their demand that their ancient task be carried out. In an odd way, they almost agree with Apollo....
        So far we cannot see any way how the Furies will be brought to reconciliation. But there is one, small note --the Furies ask "So Heaven's firm ordinance has now been told/The task which Fate immutably assigned/To our devotion.  Who will then withhold/ Due fear and reverence?" (line 390ff). This points to their later function, for they will furnish the necessary fear that keeps even modern society in line. Athena will acknowledge that even a modern, Athenian social order needs fear and the Furies to keep law and order.
        Athena now arrives on stage (middle page 161_, announcing she has just come from Troy, where she was receiving a dedication of the spoils of Troy. This of course, is a reference to the great deed of Agamemnon, a reference that Orestes will exploit. Notice her reaction to the Furies. She is not fearful or scornful of them, but treats them with respect (But I am unjust -- Reason forbids to slander others unprovoked, bottom page 161). Athena know that  to do otherwise  would be wrong. Such respect is the beginning of Persuasion, and the Furies reply in turn and inform her of their function.
        Instead of condemning the Furies, Athena tries reason. She wants to know why the Furies are pursuing Orestes and whether there are any acceptable extenuating circumstances for the crime that might free a man guilty of this crime. The Furies, of course, cannot imagine what could allow a man to kill his mother. The Furies insist on the oath, that Orestes swear that he did not kill his mother. To them, it is simple matter. If you kill your mother, for whatever reason, you are guilty. But Athena knows the issue is more complicated, for, as she questions whether there was some "complusive power) (middle, page 162) that forced Orestes to do this. This compulsive power probably refers to Agamemnon's own Furies.
            And because Athena has treated them with respect and reason, the Furies are willing to allow her to judge, probably because they cannot conceive of not winning in a fair debate. And they believe Athena to be fair -- unlike Apollo (2/3 down, page 162).
            In a sort of pre-trial hearing, Orestes then is allowed to state his case.  Notice how Orestes picks up on Athena's comment about Troy (top 1/2 page 163). This brings up the great deed of Agamemnon, and the point that it was more than a mere man that Clytemnestra killed, but a King and Master. Notice too how he again stresses that he has undergone purification, has atoned for the bloodshed. Notice too he directly states his case, admits he killed his mother, and at the same time notes that he was under compulsion by the spirit of his father and the command of Apollo.
        At this point (top of page 164)  the pre-trial hearing is over. Athena realizes this matter cannot be solved by a summary judgment, but a full trial must take place. At this point we have what is called a "foundation legend" which, in mythic terms, explains the origin of a social institution, here the jury trial. As I pointed out in class, the jury trial was a major advance in government. Before this it was the duty of individual families and clans to avenge the murder of a relative, which brought endless cycles of killing and revenge killing and more revenge killing. In a trial, it is the government's duty (and that of the other citizens) to determine guilt or innocence of a crime, not prejudiced private individuals. .
        Note also here that Athena sees both sides of the question, and, unlike Apollo, respects and acknowledges the real power of the furies.
        Now the Furies sing another ode (top 1/3 of 164 ff.), which also hints that the Furies, because they are being treated with respect and being allowed to state their case on an equal footing with the Olympians, are now showing a new side to their nature, showing a wider perspective on society than they revealed before. They see how they represent a necessary check on human evil. From this consideration of human evil the Furies move to an even more remarkable generalization about society itself (middle of page 165) . "Seek neither licence, where no law compels, nor slavery beneath a tyrant's rod/ Where liberty and rule are balanced well/ Success will follow as the gift of God " This is the Golden Mean ( = middle way)  so praised by the Greeks. These former vampire hounds are getting downright philosophical. And in fact Athena will say something almost exactly like this later on as she establishes the court forever.  Thus the Furies show that they can be incorporated into a more sophisticated society of both men and gods, for they are more than mindless bloodhounds. But it will require more Persuasion. Note too they are considering higher concepts of Justice now, mentioning the knowledge not just of blood law, but of God. And they now speak of the good fortune that follows those of good will (top of 166 ff) And Orestes, like the hypothetical person in the Furies' ode,  is willingly  just. And he has respected his parents, another important factor to the Furies.
        Athena announces (bottom 1/3 pg. 166) the commencement of the trial and the gathering of the jury. Apollo will act as defense counsel, and the Furies will be the prosecution, which gets to speak first. The Furies go back to their old habits during the trial, asking the simple question -- did he do it or not? Of course Orestes must admit that he did kill his mother. But note that at least the Furies do ask him the question (middle 167)  Athena earlier asked, whether anybody *made *him do it. And the answer is that Apollo commanded him.
        When questioned further, Orestes runs into the same argument Apollo had at Delphi -- the Furies insist that they did not hunt Clytemnestra because she did not kill blood kin. At this point Orestes must turn to Apollo for help, but not before ironically making a comment that echoes a crucial argument later. He asks (top of page 168) "But I am of my mother's then?" This will echo Apollo's argument about the Father being the true parent, not the mother
    As he begins the defense (middle 168), Apollo immediately (as any good trial lawyer would) tries to show he is speaking the ABSOLUTE TRUTH, that is, speaking with the voice of Zeus. But we may doubt this.  Apollo's next point  (bottom 1/3 168) is that the value of a human life is not based on simply natural matters like blood kinship, but on social roles. Society, not biology, defines your worth. Of course, this serves men in a male-oriented society. By that standard Agamemnon was more valuable than Clytemnestra Orestes said something similar in the Libation Bearers when he confronted Clytemnestra. For him the men are more important than the women, because they fight in wars to protect the homeland and women. Thus they deserve greater power and freedom and respect. This is Apollo's argument here. Plus, of course, a *woman* murdering a man, and a king at that, and by stealth, overturns the social order, and thus is much more terrible than Orestes' crime. It is a wife murdering a husband, and a subject murdering their king.
        But the Furies sent a counter argument right back, asking why , if Zeus honored Fathers so much,  did he cast his own father in chains? (middle pg. 169).
        At this point Apollo loses his temper, a sure sign that his argument is weak at this point. He points out that death is eternal; after all Zeus could (and apparently did) release his father. To this the Furies counter that indeed, since death is final, the pollution of a murderer is also final. Both are totally serious crimes. Chalk up one for the Furies.
    At this point Apollo must use his best (if tricky) argument, that the male, not the female, is the child's true parent (bottom 1/4 page 169) , which may reflect then-current scientific speculation as well as male supremacist doctrine. It is not totally far-fetched. The woman is like the field into which seed is sown. All agree that the land only provides nurture, it does not actually produce life. That comes from the seed. And it is the man that plants the seed. Apollo cites as proof of this outstanding doctrine Athena herself, who was born directly from the head of Zeus.
        (Aeschylus does not mention, of course, the full story. According to legends Zeus made Metis (= Mind) pregnant, after which he swallowed her, to gain wisdom, so to speak. It can be argued that Athena had to come out through Zeus' head (probably rather thin-skulled chap anyway) in order to be born).
        Apollo finishes his defense like a good Athenian attorney, who was allowed to make promises and hint at bribes to a jury to help sway the decision. The laws of admission of testimony and procedure were quite lax. The promise, of course, is that, if they acquit Orestes, the Athenians will gain a valuable alliance with Argos.
         The moment of judgment has arrived, and again we see more of the foundation legend that explains why the Areopagus (= hill of Ares) was so called (bottom 1/3 page 170) . It is because on this hill the Amazons, during their invasion of Athens, sacrificed to Ares (the war god).
        As I mentioned in class this play also concerns a important issue in Athenian politics. The former Areopagus council had many functions including murder cases. They were like a supreme court, and could disrupt the decisions of the People's assembly and council. Radical democrats led by Ephialtes had in the years previous stripped the Areopagus council of much of that power. But this council was still controlled by the old aristocracy of Athens. At this time there was an attempt (that eventually proved successful) to allow membership of the Areopagus to be selected by random ;ot among people of all classes, including the lowest property class. That would (and did) destroy the Areopagus as the last vestige of old aristocratic rule. In Athena's speech, Aeschylus (who is a democrat at heart) nevertheless seems to be voicing opposition to these reforms, when Athena speaks (bottom 170) about 'keeping my laws unchanged 'innovations' and that if they 'befoul a shining spring ( = the traditional aristocratic Areopagus court)  with an impure / and muddle dribble)  (that is, the lower classes) the city will come in vain to drink (that is use) it.  Notice here that Athena virtually repeats the earlier words of the Furies  about the ideal Middle Way...."Guard well and reverence that form of government/ which will like eschew licence and slavery"  (top of 171)  Athena also shows that she values the fear that the Furies can bring to wrong doers. Again, we see how Athena will be able to find a place for the Furies. They are not that far apart.
             As the jurors cast their votes, Apollo and the Furies wrangle . Again, Apollo and the Furies show their one-sidedness. There is some debate here whether there are twelve jurors, with Athena casting a tie-breaker, or only eleven jurors, with Athena casting a vote that ties the vote and thus acquits Orestes. Scholars are split on this, but I do think that eleven jurors make more sense, especially in light of the line 752 as Athena speaks "The man has been acquitted in a murder suit, for the number of votes is equal." Athena, of course, has voted for Orestes, for she says that "The father's claims/ and male supremacy in all things... wins my whole heart's loyalty (middle pg. 172)". Feminist critics really hate this passage, for it represents the model of a woman who has been 'co-opted' into betraying her sex. There is some truth to this, for Aeschylus, for all his advanced ideas, did believe in the utter primacy of the male over the female.
               The votes are finally counted, and Orestes is acquitted.  Orestes is joyous, and promises the Argive alliance (which Athens was probably at this point participating in) and, blessing Athens , he leaves.
            But the play still has a third to go. Older critics have suggested that the point of this play is to show how Zeus, though Athena, established a court as a solution to unsolvable human problems. But notice here that it is not the trial that really resolves the dispute. For the Furies now are outraged at the verdict. Trials are only as potent as trust in the trial system makes them for those involved. If people do not believe in the justice of trials, they solve nothing -- as we seem to sometimes see today. The Furies repeat the same complaint they had against Apollo, that the Young Gods have trampled on the rights of the older gods ("The Old is Trampled by the New : (bottom  1/4 pg. 173) The Chorus of Furies promise plague, barrenness and horrid ills for Athens. They must be persuaded further.
            At this point Apollo has left. Good thing, for he would have probably raged further and ruined everything. But notice how calm Athena is. What we shall see here is the triumph of Persuasion, which is the key to political life (Wish we had more of it in Congress). Athena asks the Furies to be good sports, pointing out that the narrow loss showed that Athenian people saw merit in their arguments (top 1/2 pg 174). It was not complete rejection. She ask them to think, reflect (wish we had more of that in Congress!). And further, instead of rejecting them, she makes a solemn vow that they will have a place in the new social order represented by trials and juries. They will be worshipped in a cave in Athens, a position of great honor.
            Of course, the Furies, at first, can only think of their loss, how the young gods again have run roughshod over the old gods. They are not listening (bottom 1/2, pg. 174).
            But Athena keeps on. She hints (top 1/2 of 175) that she **could** if she wanted to , use the dread thunderbolts of Zeus -- but there is no need of that. Instead, Persuasion is the answer, the promise of a new share in the land that will give the Furies more power and prestige than they had before, that will make them feared, but also honored and even loved by gods and men.
            The Chorus does not listen, but Athena keeps on, and we have another foundation legend for the cult of the Eumenides on the Acropolis, next to the shrine of Erechtheus, the holiest spot in Athens (top 176). And here we have a reference to events of then-current Athenian politics. Athens had been through tremendous politcal struggles. Indeed the reformer Ephialtes, who has passed the earlier reform of the Areopagus despite heavy aristocratic opposition, was assassinated, and there was always the threat of civil war. Aeschylus here is, through Athena, pleading for domestic peace. Let not the warring factions be like the Furies. Let there be no civil war. Instead of cursing all Athens, let the Furies protect the city against civil faction and strife.
            One more time the chorus refuses to listen, but they are running out of steam as Athena does not cease quietly making her promises to them, and she invokes again Persuasion, certainly the keynote of the end of the play. Note how Athena says "I will not weary in offering you friendly words" (bottom 176). This is important. To make persuasion work, you must go the extra mile and more than a mile. You must believe your opponent can be make to understand.
            And now, finally, the Furies listen. This is a lesson for us all. These earth divinities will be given the role of guardians of the Athens' prosperity and fertility, and indeed, as earlier Clytemnestra impiusly described her murder of Agamemnon in terms of fertility ritual, here we have the real thing, as the Chorus promises blessing upon the land (bottom 1/2, pg. 178).
            The play ends in a joyful prayer of reconciliation between the Furies and Athens and the divine order. The old cosmic division has been healed. Zeus has, working though the long, tragic history of the house of Atreus, brought a good both to human society in the establishment of a trial by jury, but also a new and better order that helps the both men and gods. And this happy event has come though Persuasion as Athena notes "Holy Persuasion too I bless" (middle page 179). 
            Now, as the play ends, attendants come and robe the Eumenides' grim black costumes in glowing red robes. Earlier we saw Agamemnon go to his death on a red carpet, and become wrapped in a red robe as he is butchered in the tub by Clytemnestra,  and then Orestes, after he killed his mother,  displayed that very red robe.  But now that blood red as become the royal red of honor. The false torch beacon, which announced the ambiguous, excessive victory at Troy, now becomes a holy torch procession as the Furies are escorted to their new home. Peace has come.
 

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